Seismic effects from major basin formation on the Moon and Mercury

Grooved and hilly terrains are reported which occur at the antipode of major basins on the Moon (Imbrium, Orientale) and Mercury (Caloris). Order-of-magnitude calculations, for an Imbrium-size impact on the Moon, indicate P-wave-induced surface displacements of 10 m at the basin antipode that would arrive prior to secondary ejecta. Comparable surface waves are reported which would arrive subsequent to secondary ejecta impacts and would increase in magnitude as they converge at the antipode. Other seismically induced surface features include: subdued, furrowed crater walls produced by landslides and concomitant secondary impacts; emplacement and leveling of light plains units owing to seismically induced "fluidization" of slide material; knobby, pitted terrain around old basins from enhancement of seismic waves in ancient ejecta blankets; and the production and enhancement of deep-seated fractures that led to the concentration of farside lunar maria in the Apollo-Ingenii region

Experimental evidence for non-proportional growth of large craters

Evidence from laboratory impact experiments is indicating that increasing crater aspect ratios (diameter:depth) can result from increasing both velocity and projectile size without invoking unusual impactor conditions. An extensive data base of experimental impact cratering was analyzed for a variety of impactors and impact velocities for low strength targets. These data indicate a change in cratering efficiency that appears to be related to the onset of projectile deformation or rupture. When all projectile types and sizes are considered, one finds two contrasting relationships between crater aspect ratio and impactor parameter. These relationships are briefly considered

Momentum transfer from oblique impacts

A completely satisfactory experiment would be in a low gravity environment where the effect of momentum imparted by ejecta impacting the surface can be removed or controlled from momentum transfer during impact. Preliminary estimates can be made using a ballistic pendulum. Such experiments were initiated at the NASA-Ames Vertical Gun Range in order to examine momentum transfer due to impact vaporization for oblique impacts. The preliminary results indicate that momentum from oblique impacts is very inefficient: decreasing with increasing impact velocity and perhaps size; increasing with decreasing density; and increasing with increasing impact angle. At face value, such results minimize the effect of momentum transfer by grazing impact; the more probable impact angles of 30 deg would have a greater effect, contrary to the commonly held impression

Oblique impact: Projectile richochet, concomitant ejecta and momentum transfer

Experimental studies of oblique impact indicate that projectile richochet occurs for trajectory angles less than 30 deg and that the richocheted projectile, accompanied by some target material, are ejected at velocities that are a large fraction of the impact velocity. Because the probability of occurrence of oblique impact less than 30 deg on a planetary body is about one out of every four impact events, oblique impacts would seem to be a potential mechanism to provide a source of meteorites from even the largest atmosphere-free planetary bodies. Because the amount of richocheted target material cannot be determined from previous results, additional experiments in the Ames Vertical Gun laboratory were undertaken toward that purpose using pendulums; one to measure momentum of the richocheted projectile and concomitant target ejecta, and a second to measure the momentum transferred from projectile to target. These experiments are briefly discussed

Impacts of free-floating objects: Unique space station experiments

The transfer of momentum and kinetic energy between planetary bodies forms the basis for wide ranging problems in planetary science ranging from the collective long term effects of minor perturbations to the catastrophic singular effect of a major collision. Although the collisional transfer of momentum and energy was discussed over the last two decades, major issues remain that largely reflect current limitations in Earth based experimental conditions and 3-D numerical codes. Two examples with potential applications in a Space Station laboratory, are presented: asteroid spin rates and orientations, and planetary disruption/spin rates. Asteroid spin rate and orientation experiments are needed wherein free floating nonspining and spining objects of varying strength, porosity, and volatility are impacted at varying velocities and angles. A space station platform also could provide an opportunity to test important facets of planetary disruption/spin rate models by allowing freely suspended spherical targets of varying viscosities, internal density gradients, and spin rates

Impact decapitation from laboratory to basin scales

Although vertical hypervelocity impacts result in the annihilation (melting/vaporization) of the projectile, oblique impacts (less than 15 deg) fundamentally change the partitioning of energy with fragments as large as 10 percent of the original projectile surviving. Laboratory experiments reveal that both ductile and brittle projectiles produce very similar results where limiting disruption depends on stresses proportional to the vertical velocity component. Failure of the projectile at laboratory impact velocities (6 km/s) is largely controlled by stresses established before the projectile has penetrated a significant distance into the target. The planetary surface record exhibits numerous examples of oblique impacts with evidence fir projectile failure and downrange sibling collisions

Debris-cloud collisions: Accretion studies in the Space Station

The growth of planetesimals in the Solar System reflects the success of collisional aggregation over disruption. It is widely assumed that aggregation must represent relatively low encounter velocities between two particles in order to avoid both disruption and high-ejecta velocities. Such an assumption is supported by impact experiments and theory. Experiments involving particle-particle impacts, however, may be pertinent to only one type of collisional process in the early Solar System. Most models envision a complex protoplanetary nebular setting involving gas and dust. Consequently, collisions between clouds of dust or solids and dust may be a more relistic picture of protoplanetary accretion. Recent experiments performed at the NASA-Ames Vertical Gun Range have produced debris clouds impacting particulate targets with velocities ranging from 100 m/s to 6 km/s. The experiments produced several intriguing results that not only warrant further study but also may encourage experiments with the impact conditions permitted in a microgravity environment. Possible Space Station experiments are briefly discussed

Impacts of free-floating objects: Unique Space Station experiments

The transfer of momentum and kinetic energy between planetary bodies forms the basis for wide-ranging problems in planetary science ranging from the collective long-term effects of minor perturbations to the catastrophic singular effect of a major collision. In the former case, the evolution of asteroid spin rates and orientations and planetary rotation rates are cited. In the latter case, the catastrophic angular momenta and the near-global disruption of partially molten planets are included. Although the collisional transfer of momentum and energy were discussed over the last two decades, major issues remain that largely reflect current limitations in earth-based experimental conditions and 3-D numerical codes. Two examples with potential applications in a Space Station laboratory are presented

Impacts of hemispherical granular targets: Implications for global impacts

As impact excavation diameters subtend a nontrivial fraction of a planetary body, both the excavation process and ejecta emplacement may depart form the classical description of impacts into a planar surface. Hemispherical particulate targets were impacted at the NASA-Ames Vertical Gun Range in order to trace the evolution of the ejecta curtain and to document the effects of slope and surface curvature on crater shape and cratering efficiency. The experiments suggest that basin size impacts or large craters on small bodies may be shallower than their counterparts on a planar surface but may have displaced a larger relative mass. Moreover, the increased ejecta curtain angle with distance may result in a change in ejecta emplacement style with distance. Although the ejecta curtain is vertical, ejecta within the curtain impact the surface at 45 deg and the time between first and last arrival within the curtain increases. This increased interaction time as the ejecta curtain density decreases should result in a more chaotic style of implacement

Atmospheric cloud physics laboratory project study

Engineering studies were performed for the Zero-G Cloud Physics Experiment liquid cooling and air pressure control systems. A total of four concepts for the liquid cooling system was evaluated, two of which were found to closely approach the systems requirements. Thermal insulation requirements, system hardware, and control sensor locations were established. The reservoir sizes and initial temperatures were defined as well as system power requirements. In the study of the pressure control system, fluid analyses by the Atmospheric Cloud Physics Laboratory were performed to determine flow characteristics of various orifice sizes, vacuum pump adequacy, and control systems performance. System parameters predicted in these analyses as a function of time include the following for various orifice sizes: (1) chamber and vacuum pump mass flow rates, (2) the number of valve openings or closures, (3) the maximum cloud chamber pressure deviation from the allowable, and (4) cloud chamber and accumulator pressure